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The Union, the Star and the Eagle: EU-NATO Cooperation Under Trump 2.0
Giuseppe Spatafora
This brief examines current EU-NATO relations, which have deepened since Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine. While the organisations share 23 member states and face comparable security threats, structural constraints — including differing memberships and duplication concerns — limit deeper cooperatio...
China — A Fragile Power? How Europe Can Use Its Economic Leverage Over Beijing
Alicia Garcia-Herrero, Tim Rühlig
This Chaillot Paper argues that despite appearances of strength, China faces growing fragility rooted in domestic economic challenges. The authors contend that slowing growth, a rapidly ageing population, a debt-ridden property sector and shrinking fiscal space undermine governmental legitimacy. Bei...
Building a European Competitive Edge in Space: An Agenda for Action
Carlo Des Dorides, Andrea G. Rodríguez, Jaime Martínez, Christopher Schade
The global space economy is undergoing significant structural transformation. Rapid reductions in launch costs and the proliferation of mega-constellations of satellites are changing the space sector. The convergence of space technology with digital and defence infrastructure creates dual-use applic...
France's Nuclear Initiative: A Step Toward Europeanising Deterrence
Luigi Scazzieri
This commentary analyses President Macron's announcement regarding France's nuclear arsenal expansion and deepened nuclear cooperation with EU partners. It argues this represents a significant shift in European deterrence strategy, driven by uncertainty about US extended deterrence and Russian nucle...
Beyond Rupture: Strategic Choices for the EU in an Era of Global Disorder
Steven Blockmans
This report examines the European Union's strategic position amid growing global instability. It argues that with growing worldwide distrust in Trump's America, the EU has both the opportunity and the responsibility to act decisively to safeguard and transform the institutions and character of multi...
Payment Sovereignty Without Walls: The Case for Europe's Multi-Rail Ecosystem
Judith Arnal
This analysis examines European payment sovereignty concerns arising from geopolitical tensions and the dominance of non-EU card schemes. It unbundles the payments value chain into its constituent layers, identifies where genuine dependencies exist, and distinguishes between card schemes, digital wa...
The Power of the Few: How Clusters Can Strengthen European Defence
Luigi Scazzieri
This brief argues that bilateral and minilateral defence clusters offer the most viable approach for strengthening European military cooperation. Rather than pursuing comprehensive EU-wide solutions, smaller groups of aligned states can more effectively advance joint procurement, interoperability, a...
Governing Social Media as a Public Utility
Christoph Mueller-Bloch, Raffaele Ciriello
The authors argue that social media's engagement-driven business model creates structural conflicts of interest that amplify misinformation and societal harms. Current governance frameworks, such as the US Section 230 and the EU Digital Services Act, delegate content moderation to corporations with...
End of Mission: Reinventing Closure and Transition Processes in EU Civilian CSDP
Ville Savoranta
This research report examines how the European Union concludes and transitions its civilian crisis management operations under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). It analyses the institutional and operational challenges of mission closure, lessons learned from past transitions, and the ga...
Reclaiming Software Engineering as the Enabling Technology for the Digital Age
Tanja E. J. Vos, Tijs van der Storm, Alexander Serebrenik, Lionel Briand, Roberto Di Cosmo, Jean-Michel Bruel, Benoît Combemale
Software engineering is the invisible infrastructure of the digital age. The authors contend that while breakthroughs in AI, quantum computing, and cybersecurity depend on software engineering advances, the discipline receives insufficient recognition in European policy frameworks. Major programmes...
Transforming Cities — EU Green Transition Research Journey
M. Trane, S. Borchardt, V. Fronza, P. Lombardi, R. Pollo, L. Marelli
This report examines the barriers and enablers for cities' roles in the European green transition. Drawing on research across multiple EU Member States, it identifies seven critical conditions for successful urban transformation: community engagement, infrastructure upgrades, innovative governance a...
Addressing Multidomain Nuclear Escalation Risk
Wilfred Wan
This policy report analyses the growing risk of nuclear escalation across multiple domains — cyber, space, conventional, and nuclear. It examines how the entanglement of nuclear and non-nuclear systems creates new escalation pathways that Cold War-era deterrence frameworks were not designed to addre...
Large Language Models as a (Bad) Security Norm in the Context of Regulation and Compliance
Kaspar Rosager Ludvigsen
This paper examines the risks associated with deploying large language models in cybersecurity infrastructure development. The author reviews established cybersecurity norms and EU legal requirements, then analyses how LLM weaknesses conflict with both best practices and regulatory obligations. Key...
NIS Investments 2025
ENISA NIS Investments Team
This study explores how cybersecurity policy implementation — particularly the NIS2 Directive — affects organisational investments, resources, and operations across EU entities. It surveys cybersecurity spending patterns, staffing levels, incident response budgets, and compliance costs across sector...
Machine Learning for Climate Policy: Understanding Policy Progression in the European Green Deal
Patricia West, Michelle WL Wan, Alexander Hepburn, Edwin Simpson, Raul Santos-Rodriguez, Jeffrey N Clark
This research applies machine learning techniques to analyse how climate policies progress from announcement through adoption within the European Green Deal framework. The team compiled data on 165 policies, testing various text representation methods including TF-IDF, BERT, and ClimateBERT alongsid...
ENISA Threat Landscape 2025
ENISA Threat Landscape Team
The annual ENISA Threat Landscape report analyses 4,875 cybersecurity incidents over a period spanning from July 2024 to June 2025. Using a threat-centric methodology with contextual analysis, it identifies the most prominent cyber threats facing the EU, including ransomware, state-sponsored attacks...
AI, Digital Platforms, and the New Systemic Risk
Philipp Hacker, Atoosa Kasirzadeh, Lilian Edwards
This paper develops a rigorous framework for understanding systemic risk in AI, platform, and hybrid system governance by drawing from finance, complex systems theory, climate change, and cybersecurity. The authors argue that recent legislation including the EU's AI Act and Digital Services Act invo...
Towards a European Quantum Act: A Two-Pillar Framework for Regulation and Innovation
Mauritz Kop
This paper proposes a dedicated European Quantum Act modelled after legislative strategies used in the AI and semiconductor sectors. The author argues that a robust, anticipatory, and harmonised EU regulatory framework, grounded in the precautionary principle, is necessary for quantum technologies....
An Overview of the Risk-based Model of AI Governance
Veve Fry
This research examines risk-based approaches to AI regulation across Europe, North America, and Australia, with particular attention to the EU AI Act. The author critiques how current governance frameworks conflate risk and harm, arguing that risk assessment methodologies reproduce existing inequali...
NIS2 Technical Implementation Guidance
ENISA NIS Cooperation Group
This guidance document provides technical direction for implementing the NIS2 Directive across digital infrastructure, ICT service management, and digital provider sectors. It covers risk management measures, incident reporting requirements, supply chain security, and business continuity planning. T...